Historical Failures in International Cooperation in Physics and Astronomy

Through the "long 19th century" many international meetings happened and new organizations took shape in physics, chemistry, and astronomy, including the AGK, standardization of units and constants, Hale's Solar Union, and a plan to rationalize organic chemical nomenclature. Most of this fell apart in 1919, when only "those nations at war with the central powers" were allowed to join IUPAP, IAU, and IUPAC. But there were curious and ominous precursors in the form of expeditions to observe solar eclipses and the 18th and 19th century transits of Venus. Not only were none of these international, with every interested and prosperous country sending its own people and equipment to distant places, many weren't even national; each of two or more British, American, German, and French observatories sent its own crew and hardware. International distrust is not new! But I am happy to report that the astronomical equipment removed from Peking by Germany in 1900 was eventually returned, as required by a specific clause (the only one mentioning astronomy) in the Treaty of Versailles.